Syllabus Design

 Theory Review:  Leslee Watson-Flores

Theory Review:  Brain and Mind

Leslee Watson-Flores

EDAC 635, Spring 2021

Professor Bo Chang

February 21, 2021

Student Name	Commented On
Leslee Watson-Flores	Amelia Boggess
Leslee Watson-Flores	Patricia Kupchik

Historically, instructional practices have been primarily based upon traditional teaching techniques and ways of thinking instead of being based upon knowledge of how brains work (Rodgers, 2015).  Prior to the 1990s, much of what scientists knew about the human brain was based upon experimental studies of rat brains or on damaged human brains which required surgical intervention for repair. The development of technologies such as PET scans and MRIs have made it possible for scientists to study healthy human brains and how they function in learning (McGeehan, 2015). These studies have allowed neuroscience to flourish and have paved the way for the development of educational theories like brain-based learning.

Main Theoretical Points

Core research on brain-based learning was performed in the 1990s by Geoffrey Caine and Renate Nummela Caine.  While the Caines did not feel that educators need to be experts on brain anatomy and function, their research did suggest that educators must have some appreciation of how multifaceted the brain is in order to more fully appreciate the complexities involved in education (Caine & Caine, 1994). Their research produced twelve principles of brain-based learning which involve using the rules of how the brain processes information to provide the framework for meaningful learning experiences (Duman, 2010).  Information related to several of these principles will be highlighted and discussed in this review.

Findings from brain-based research have suggested that the brain is a parallel processor and has the ability to perform many functions simultaneously.  It is believed that individuals are only aware of about 25 percent of their brain’s activity (MacKeracher, 2004).  Even while a person is engaged in conscious learning, the brain is also subconsciously monitoring bodily functions, dealing with daily concerns, and scanning for threats or danger.  Due to the brain’s information processing ability, the brain should be processing information that is being learned in multiple ways in order to keep the brain focused on the present task and not allowing it to become distracted (MacKeracher, 2004).

Brain-based research has also shown that learning is as natural as breathing and is affected by an individual’s entire physiology (Caine & Caine, 1990).  This means that learning engages the whole body and is affected by factors such as health, nutrition, movement, attention cycles, and restfulness (Learning, 2019).  This seems to indicate that optimum learning occurs when the learner is well-nourished, active, has adequate rest, and when learning is tuned to the learner’s natural biological rhythms.  Biological rhythms in the body impact such physiological processes as pulse and respiration rates, memory cycles, reaction times, and attentional highs and lows.  These biological rhythms cause the brain to cycle through attentional highs and lows every 90 to 110 minutes, so there are approximately 12 to 16 brain cycles every 24 hours (Hileman, 2009).  Learning activities that mirror one’s biological rhythms will be most impactful.

The search for meaning and the ability to make sense of our experiences is basic to the human brain and necessary for optimum learning (Caine & Caine, 1990).  In fact, one definition of learning is “the extraction, from confusion, of meaningful patterns” (McGeehan, 2015).  In this context, the human brain needs to find relevance and personal meaning in what is being studied in order to learn and remember.  Neuroscientists have compared the human brain to a sieve as it is thought to let many of the estimated 40,000 bits of information collected per second pass through without forming a new memory or experience (McGeehan, 2015).  New information must have some emotional value or relevance to the learner, or the brain effectively ignores it.  A memory is a neural representation of an event that occurs in a specific context, and contexts which are relevant or emotionally important can create powerful, strong memories. On the other hand, when new information lacks personal meaning, the neural networks required to create lasting memories are not created (McGeehan, 2015).

Brain-based learning studies suggest that emotions and attitudes are critical to patterning and drive attention, sense-making, and memory (Learning, 2019).  This means that what we learn is influenced by emotions and mind-sets centered around personal biases and expectancies, prejudices, self-esteem, and the need for social connections and interactions.  Emotions are also closely related to memory because they facilitate the storage and retrieval of information within the brain (Caine & Caine, 1990).  Neuroscience has shown that more neural fibers project from the brain’s emotional center into the logical and rational part of the brain than the reverse.  This means that emotions tend to determine behavior more strongly than rational processes (Green, 1999).  As a result, emotions and cognition are inseparable.   

Brain-based learning proponents suggest that when learners experience fear of failure in the learning process, the ability to learn is hindered.  Perceived threats or personal distress change the method of processing information from one that favors long-term memory encoding into a short-term processing method that favors survival.  Physiological changes in the brain engage the sympathetic nervous system and trigger the “fight or flight response”.  This survival mechanism causes the brain to downshift and function in a hyper-vigilant mode whose main function is simply to survive.  During this response, higher brain functions such as those related to the creation of long-term memories needed for learning get pushed aside as the brain prioritizes survival over all other processes (Rodgers, 2015).  As a result, the emotional climate in a learning environment must be positive and feel safe and supportive in order to create an environment in which students create lasting memories and learn.

In addition to the principles of brain-based learning established by the Caines, other research on the brain and learning has indicated that individuals do not learn in the same way because each brain is unique.  New experiences physically change the brain by causing neurons (brain cells) to grow new branches that communicate with adjacent neurons.  When this pathway between neurons is used repeatedly, it becomes very efficient and learning is thought to have occurred (McGeehan, 2015).  Because learning itself changes the structure of the brain, the more a person learns and the more experiences a person has, the more unique and individualized that person’s brain becomes (Green, 1999).  

Applications

In order to exploit the ability of the brain to function as a parallel processor, the facilitator should provide new learning material in multiple formats.  For instance, the facilitator might give a brief oral lecture on a new topic with written lecture notes or PowerPoint slides also provided as a way to reinforce what is being said in the lecture.  The instructor might also show a short video on the same topic to present the information in yet another way to allow the learner to see the information via a different mode of delivery.  The instructor could work sample problems on the chalkboard and give students a worksheet with practice problems of their own to do individually or in small groups.  The idea is to allow the student to work with the same material in multiple ways to keep the brain stimulated and focused on the task at hand.

Since learning involves the individual learner’s entire physiology and is affected by such physiological processes as biological rhythms, effort should be made to spread out different activities throughout the class period to capitalize on learner’s natural attentional highs and lows. Classes should also be offered at various times throughout the day so that students who are more alert and ready to learn at different times of the day can be accommodated.  Factors such as fatigue and stress can affect one’s ability to learn, so teaching time management skills,  mindfulness exercises, and coping techniques can help students be in better health and more receptive to learning.  Because movement increases blood flow throughout the body, it makes sense that movement could have an impact on the ability to learn and focus.  Students should be encouraged to move periodically during class, and learning activities can be implemented that require movement as part of the activity.  An example of a learning activity requiring physical movement could be having students form a human graph where each student represents a coordinate on the graph. Students must pace off the rise and the run to arrive at their specific coordinates.

The aforementioned research indicated that students need to find relevance in what they are learning, and the context in which the material is being presented must be relatable to their own lives.  Instructors need to get to know their students and their past experiences so that they can design problems and scenarios that are relevant to their specific students.  For example, in a class that has numerous athletes, an instructor might use an example of the relationship between vertical leap and hang time to introduce the concept of functions.

Because emotions have such a strong correlation to learning, instructors must strive to provide a learning environment that is adequately challenging but also low stress and that is free from judgment and safe to experiment freely in.  Student errors must be corrected, but the correction should be done without criticism or negativity.  The instructor should model a positive attitude and demonstrate coping techniques that can be used to deal with stressful situations.

Student successes should be praised and they should be encouraged to realize that they are capable and able to learn so they remain motivated to learn.  

Since every brain is unique and is molded by one’s own experiences, instructors must develop activities and learning experiences that appeal to learners with a variety of learning and life experiences.  This may mean breaking from traditional instruction and instead developing individual learning profiles for students that complement their expectations and personal experiences.  It may also mean teaching the same topic in multimodal fashion to reach learners with different learning preferences so that all students have the opportunity to experience learning from a visual, auditory, tactile, or emotional perspective.

Reflections

Highlights

My undergraduate degree is in biology, so I was drawn to learning more about the correlation between neuroanatomy and learning.  From my research, I now have a much greater understanding of how learning can be affected by a multitude of factors that are both internal and within one’s learning environment.  I have many students that experience a great deal of stress when taking math tests, and as a result, perform very poorly.  I can now explain to them that their anxiety is causing their brains to downshift into survival mode to deal with the perceived threat that is causing their anxiety, and that is why they perform poorly, not that they are incapable of doing algebra.  Creating a low stress environment and teaching students coping mechanisms for anxiety can help them strengthen their ability to learn and have more success while taking tests.  Gaining this knowledge and perspective was a definite highlight of this study. 

Process

I began by rereading chapter 5 on the brain and mind in learning from the MacKeracher text.  I highlighted what I felt were important concepts within that chapter, and took notes on  potential topics to focus on for my theory review.  I narrowed down the potential topics for my theory review to brain-based learning and neuroplasticity.  I researched relevant articles using Google Scholar and the Ball State University library database and decided to focus on brain-based learning.  I printed the articles I found most interesting, read them, and highlighted passages I wanted to reference in my theory review.  I identified the main theoretical ideas I wished to discuss and sorted the articles based on those main topics.  After assembling the main theoretical ideas in Table 1, I used those main ideas to build my theory review.

Table 1.  Summary of Theoretical Ideas

Main Theoretical Ideas	Summary of How to Apply Main Theoretical Ideas in Practice
The brain is a parallel processor	Provide information in multiple ways/formats (for the same topic, the facilitator might give a brief oral lecture, provide written notes, show a short video, and provide practice problems for the students to complete on their own and in groups).
Learning engages the entire physiology	Different types of activities should be alternately spaced throughout a learning period to maximize the impact of biological rhythms. Teaching time-management, mindfulness, and coping strategies can minimize stress and promote health and learning. Provide learning activities that give the learner the opportunity to move around and be active while engaging in the learning process.
The search for meaning is innate	Learn what is meaningful to your students and provide learning opportunities in a context that is meaningful to their lives.
Emotions are critical in learning	Provide a learning environment that is free from judgment and safe in which to experiment freely. Provide activities that are adequately challenging to the learner but are also low stress. Model a positive attitude and demonstrate coping techniques that can be used to deal with stressful situations.
Individuals do not learn in the same way because every brain is unique and further changed by learning	Develop activities and learning experiences that appeal to learners with a variety of learning and life experiences.

References

Caine, G., & Caine, R. N. (1994). Making connection: Teaching and the human brain. New 

York: Innovative Learning Publications. 

Caine, R.N., & Caine, G. (1990). Understanding a Brain-Based Approach to Learning and 

Teaching. Educational Leadership, 48(2), 66-70.  Retrieved from 

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ416439.

Duman, B. (2010). The Effects of Brain-Based Learning on the Academic Achievement of 

Students with Different Learning Styles.  Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 10 

(4), 2077-2103.  Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ919873.pdf.

Green, F. (1999). Brain and Learning Research:  Implications for Meeting the Needs of Diverse 

Learners.  Education, 119(4), 682-687.  Retrieved from 

http://files.rgassman.webnode.com/200000020-2476525702/brain%20and%20learning%

20A1.pdf. 

Hileman, S. (2009, January-February).  Motivating Students Using Brain-Based Teaching 

Strategies.  The Agricultural Education Magazine, 18-20.

Learning, W. (2019, February 21). 10 Beneficial Things to Know About Brain-Based Learning 

Instruction. Global Digital Citizen Foundation.  Retrieved from

https://globaldigitalcitizen.org/10-benefits-brain-based-learning-instruction. 

MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning (2nd ed.). University of Toronto 

Press. 

McGeehan, J. (2015, January 8).  Brain-compatible learning. Green Teacher. Retrieved from 

https://greenteacher.com/brain-compatible-learning/.

Rodgers, D. L. The Biological Basis of Learning: Neuroeducation Through Simulation - David 

L. Rodgers, 2015. SAGE Journals.  Retrieved from  

https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878115590585.