Adrienne Carrol's Theory Review: The Brain and Mind in Learning

 Theory Review: The Brain and Mind in Learning

Adrienne Carrol

Department of Educational Studies, Ball State University

EDAC 635: Strategies for Teaching Adults

Dr. Bo Chang

February 21, 2021

Theory Review: The Brain and Mind in Learning

Name	Commented On
Adrienne Carrol	Andrea Sadler
Adrienne Carrol	Mady Folz

The brain and the mind are both imperative to the learning process. MacKeracher points out that “When we speak of the brain, we are speaking of the physical structure” and “When we speak of the mind, we are speaking about the collective cognitive processes and constructs that we use for learning…” (p. 92) Educators who understand how the physical structure of the brain impacts learning as well as the cognitive processes used in learning will be better prepared to engage adult learners in the learning process. For the purposes of this theory review I will be focusing on different ways that the physical structure and physiology of the brain impact learning and the concept of intelligence as well as the different theories of intelligence. Additionally, I will provide examples of how to apply this information in the adult education classroom.

The Physical Brain

Two specific brain maps offer tremendous insight into how the brain impacts learning. The first brain map that I will discuss is the triune brain, which has three different levels. The lowest and innermost level is the reticular activating system (also known as the “reptilian brain”), the limbic system (also known as the “primitive mammalian brain”), and the neocortex (also known as the “modern mammalian brain”). The reticular activating system is the most primitive portion of the brain and “reacts instinctively - the so-called ‘fight or flight’ response to perceived danger. It is also engaged in insuring survival through urging humans to to feed and mate.” (Merriam & Bierema, 2013, p. 169) The limbic system processes the emotional aspects of experience before the meaning of the experience is processed and controls each individual’s basic value system; additionally, “the limbic system determines how the brain will respond to all information received.” (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 96) Finally, the neocortex is the area of the brain that controls”conscious activity and thought” and “houses the intellect” (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 97)

The physical structure of the triune brain immensely impacts learning. Merriam and Bierema (2013) describe the neocortex as “the control tower” but point out that “it is dependent on the lower levels of the brain to pass on information, yield control over various activities, and keep the entire system activated.” (p. 170) Additionally, Roberts (2002) explains that “the brain has the capacity to “shift” up or down depending on the perception of the immediate environment. Perceived threat can force the brain to “downshift” to lower order thinking. (p. 284) MacKeracher (2004) also discusses this “downshifting” and explains that once downshifting has occurred, learning will not transpire until the perceived threat has been rectified. While downshifting can negatively impact learning, Roberts (2002) points out that educators can deliberately upshift the brains’ of their students which can positively impact learning. Additionally, the fact that the limbic processes emotion before the neocortex processes meaning implies that negative emotional learning experiences can create barriers for all future similar learning experiences. 

The second brain map that I will focus on is the hemispheric brain and its left and right hemispheres. The left and right hemispheres of the brain are connected by the corpus colosseum, and each hemisphere specializes in specific mental functions. The left hemisphere typically controls “the sensory input and all of the motor responses for the right side of the body” (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 97) and the right hemisphere controls the same for the left side of the body. Additionally, the left hemisphere tends to control the verbal, logical and analytical, temporal, sequential, and digital functions whereas the right hemisphere tends to control the nonverbal and visual spatial, gestalt and synthetic, spatial, nonlinear, and analogical functions. (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 101)  Merriam and Bierema (2014) explain that the specialization of the hemispheres impacts the learning process because “our educational system tends to favor the verbal and analytical strengths of the left brain” but they continue to state that “it is important to note that learning is maximized when the strengths of both sides of the brain are activated”. (p. 171)

Applications

Understanding how the physical structure and functions of the brain can allow educators to employ a wide variety of strategies that will increase the impact of learning. Roberts (2002) provides several strategies that will allow educators to minimize the “downshifting” and maximize the “upshifting” of students’ brain functioning including: emphasizing relationship building between student and student as well as teacher and student early in the course; including activities such as think-pair-shares, interactive learning games, group reporting, and silent journaling; and keeping approximately 60% of the lesson plan based on ritual while ensuring about 40% of the lesson plan includes new activities. Educators should also remember that negative feelings associated with a prior learning experience may become a barrier to a current learning experience and use the following strategies to minimize this barrier to learning: allowing the student to observe and not discuss, placing the student in a small group of individuals with whom they have a good rapport, or allowing the student to complete an alternate assignment to practice the skill. It has been my experience that the aforementioned activities may allow the learner to engage in a learning experience with which they have negative feelings; however, these do not necessarily guarantee that students will come to enjoy the learning experience. Additionally, educators must plan activities that will engage not only the verbal and analytical functions of the brain, but the activities must also engage the emotional, creative, and physical functions of the brain. Examples of this might include taking notes before conducting an experiment or engaging in whole group discussion before breaking into small groups to create and perform a skit.      

Intelligence

The concept of intelligence extends far beyond the traditional idea of IQ, in fact MacKeracher (2004) states that “Intelligence is a quality of mind that we use continually in our daily lives”. (p. 113) Different theorists have attempted to explain this particular “quality of mind”, and the two theories that I intend to focus on include Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence and Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory. According to Merriam and Bierema (2013) “Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence consists of three components of intelligence - analytical, creative, and practical.” (p. 180) They go on to explain that the analytical component is most aligned with the “general intelligence” measured by IQ tests, the creative component is aligned with thinking creatively or “outside the box”, and the practical component is aligned with the knowledge we gain through experience. Merriam and Bierema explain that successful intelligence occurs when an individual is able to determine how to use and when to use the appropriate intelligence for the situation, and Sternberg (2008) points out that “Most people who are successfully intelligent are not equal in these three abilities, but find ways of making the three abilities work harmoniously together.” (p. 153)  

In the early 1980s, Howard Gardner proposed a theory that there are seven different intelligences (logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal) that are defined independently of each other, yet do not operate as though they are independent; “Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems.” (Brualdi Timmins, 1996, p. 1) His reason for proposing multiple intelligences stemmed from his argument that “reason, intelligence, logic, and knowledge are not synonymous” (Brualdi Timmins, 1996, p. 1) Gardner later modified his theory to include one additional intelligence (naturalistic) and has considered an additional two (spiritual and existential) for possible inclusion. Brualdi Timmins (1996) points out that creating a learning environment that utilizes the multiple intelligences “allows a wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom learning.” (p. 2)

Applications

The practical applications to incorporate both Sternberg and Gardner’s theories in the classroom are very similar.  Sternberg (2008) encourages educators to use variety in their personal teaching style. He points out that students should be asked “to analyze, evaluate, compare and contrast, judge, and critique...create, invent, discover, imagine...apply, implement, and use what they have learned” (Sternberg, 2008, p. 153) Educators should use a variety of these options in each lesson to help students build their successful intelligence. In regards to multiple intelligences, educators should include activities that utilize a range of the different intelligences. Merriam and Beirema (2013) point out examples of activities designed to maximize student’s multiple intelligences including using manipulatives, such as pipe cleaners and clay, to demonstrate concepts (like angles in geometry) as well as writing “poems, songs, chants, or rap” (p. 179)  to practice or show understanding of a skill; they also encouraged students to use their body to show understanding of the skill (like using arms to show angle measurements). 

Reflection

Highlights

I was excited to pursue this topic as I have always enjoyed learning about the physiology of the brain as well as the psychology of learning. Based on my research, I feel that educators truly should be aware of how learners will “downshift” or “upshift” between levels of the triune brain and be prepared to minimize “downshifting” by building relationships early in the course. Additionally, educators should use a variety of different learning activities in an effort to stimulate both hemispheres of the brain as well as build upon successful intelligence and multiple intelligences.

Process

I first watched and read all of Dr. Chang’s instructions and examples before reading chapter 5: Brain and Mind in Learning, in our MacKeracher text and chapter 15: Brain, Memory, and Cognition, in my Merriam and Baumgartner text from another course. I then moved to Ball State’s OneSearch and Google Scholar to find and read book chapters and articles that expanded on the overviews provided in my textbooks. I attempted to create the table first, as suggested; however, my brain does not work that way, and I was stuck until I wrote my introductory paragraph. Once my introductory paragraph, and roadmap for this paper, was completed I was able to fully organize my thoughts and craft this theory review. 

Table 1. Summary of the theoretical ideas

Main Theoretical ideas	Summary of how to apply the main theoretical ideas in practice
“Downshifting” and “upshifting” between levels of the triune brain will occur based on the perception of the immediate environment.	Minimize “downshifting” and maximize “upshifting” by emphasizing relationship building between student and student as well as teacher and student early in the course; including activities such as think-pair-shares, interactive learning games, group reporting, and silent journaling; and keeping approximately 60% of the lesson plan based on ritual while ensuring about 40% of the lesson plan includes new activities.
The limbic system processes emotion before the neocortex processes meaning.	Attempt to minimize barriers caused by prior negative learning experiences by using strategies to make the learning experience feel less threatening. This could include allowing the student to observe and not discuss, placing the student in a small group of individuals with whom they have a good rapport, or allowing the student to complete an alternate assignment to practice the skill.
Research points out that learning is maximized when both hemispheres of the brain are activated.	Provide learning activities that utilize creativity, draw on emotions, and allow the student to move as well as draw on the verbal and analytical functions of the brain.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence	Provide a variety of activities that ask students to: analyze, evaluate, compare and contrast, judge, critique, create, invent, discover, imagine, apply, implement, and/or use what they have learned.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences	Include learning activities that appeal to a wide range of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences including collaborative learning or using manipulatives such as play-dough, pipe cleaners, or body parts to practice skills or give answers to questions, etc.

References

Brualdi Timmins, A. C. (1996). Multiple intelligences: Gardner's theory. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 5(1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.7275/7251-ea02  

MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. (2020).  Learning in adulthood:  A comprehensive guide (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.  

Merriam, S.B., & Bierema, L.L. (2013). Adult learning : Linking theory and practice (1st ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Roberts, J. W. (2002). Beyond learning by doing: The brain compatible approach. Journal of Experiential Education, 25(2), 281-285. 

Sternberg, R.J (2008). Applying psychological theories to educational practice. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1). 150-0165. DOI: 10.3102/0002831207312910